IMAGES FROM THE ENTIRE BOOK
please check gray text for attribution and licensing restrictions
images in copyright are not available for download



FIGURE 0.1
Partition and unification of territorial states since 1945
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 0.2
Typical ocean claims under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 


FIGURE 0.3
Territorial claims in the Arctic Ocean, 1971 and 2015
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 0.4
Telecommunications cables in 2009 (detail)
Telegeography
Creative Commons BY-NC-ND


 
FIGURE 1.1
International Map of the World, Hudson River, 1927
US Geological Survey
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 1.2
International Map of the World adherents as of 1913
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 


FIGURE 1.3
A map at 1:2,000,000 –
“Northern Great Lakes States" from The National Atlas of the United States of America (1970)


A map at 1:1,000,000 –
International Map of the World, Lake Superior (1966)
A map at 1:250,000 –
Escanaba sheet from series V501 (1967)
all US Geological Survey
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 1.4
Grid of the International Map of the World

download grid as a GIS layer
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 1.5
Mapping projects at 1:1,000,000 as of 1905
from Albrecht Penck, “Fortschritte in der Herstellung einer Erdkarte in Maßtabe 1 : 1 000 000,” Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft für Erdkunde zu Berlin (1905); shading added
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 1.6
Symbols for the International Map of the World, as approved in 1909
from Resolutions and Proceedings of the International Map Committee assembled in London, November, 1909 (London: HMSO, 1910)
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 1.7
Symbols for the International Map of the World, as approved in 1913
from Carte du Monde au Millionième: Comptes Rendus des séances de la deuxième conférence internationale, Paris, décembre 1913 (Paris: Service Géographique, 1914)
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 1.8
Comparison of 1909 and 1913 elevation colors for the International Map of the World
from Resolutions and Proceedings of the International Map Committee assembled in London, November, 1909 (London: HMSO, 1910) and Carte du Monde au Millionième: Comptes Rendus des séances de la deuxième conférence internationale, Paris, décembre 1913 (Paris: Service Géographique, 1914)
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 1.9
Responsibility for the International Map of the World in Africa, as approved in 1913
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 1.10
Comparison of symbols for the International Map of the World with other topographic maps of the same era
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 1.11
Typical land-cover symbols from the early twentieth century
from John Clayton Tracy, Plane Surveying: A Text-book and Pocket Manual (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1906), 521
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 1.12
Frontispiece to the International Map of the World annual reports
from Carte du Monde au Millionième: Rapport pour 1921 (Southampton: Ordnance Survey, 1922)
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
NOTE 1.71
Members of the International Commission for Air Navigation as of 1939
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 1.13
French aeronautical chart, Chalons (1911)
from P. Pollacchi, “La carte aéronautique du service géographique de l’armée,” Annales de Géographie 20, no. 112 (1911), plate 18
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 1.14
Aeronautical adaptation of the International Map of the World sheet for London (1934)
British War Office
Public Domain: expired Crown Copyright


 
FIGURE 1.15
Official International Map of the World sheets published before 1939
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 1.16
Unofficial or “provisional” International Map of the World sheets published before 1939
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 1.17
Sources assembled at the American Geographical Society for the Map of Hispanic America.
American Geographical Society
Copyright 1946, renewed 1973


 
FIGURE 1.18
Relative reliability diagram for The Map of Hispanic AmericaIstmo de Tehuantepec, 1938
American Geographical Society
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 1.19
Assembling a portion of the American Geographical Soviety's Map of Hispanic America
Alfred Eisenstaedt
Copyright 1941


 
FIGURE 1.20
Assembling the Map of Hispanic America in the courtyard of the American Geographical Society
American Geographical Society
Copyright 1946, renewed 1973


 
FIGURE 2.1
Number of sheets of the International Map of the World published or revised, 1921–1986

download data in a spreadsheet
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 2.2
Coverage of the International Map of the World as of 1986
from “Status of Publication of IMW Sheets as at 31 December 1986,” UN Document ST/ESA/SER.D/17, Supplement #3 (Feb 1987)
Public Domain: UN publication


 
FIGURE 2.3
The Mercator projection, from a 1938 atlas
from Rand McNally Ready-Reference Atlas of the World (Chicago, 1938)
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 2.4
Map illustrating the new strategic importance of polar routes through Alaska during World War II
Life Magazine
Copyright 1942, renewed 1969


 
FIGURE 2.5
Map with bold arrows and a perspective view shows the battle over oil in the Middle East
Life Magazine
Copyright 1941, renewed 1969


 
FIGURE 2.6
Richard Edes Harrison's famous polar map showing the centrality of the United States to the global conflict
originally in Fortune, March 1942; this link points to the 1944 version in Look At The World
Copyright 1942, renewed 1969


 
FIGURE 2.7
Frontispiece to Wendell Willkie's One World, showing his route around the globe
Simon & Schuster
Copyright 1943, renewed 1970


 


FIGURE 2.8
Richard Edes Harrison's views of a spherical earth, ignoring north-up conventions: the view from the US towards Asia, and the view from Europe towards Asia
from Richard Edes Harrison, Look At The World
Copyright 1944, renewed 1971


 


FIGURE 2.9
The United Nations emblem (azimuthal equidistant projection): original lapel pin and present-day version
US Office of Strategic Services; United Nations
Public Domain: US Government / UN


 
FIGURE 2.10
A new oblique Mercator projection showing global air routes without any regional frame
Geographical Journal
Copyright 1941


 


FIGURE 2.11
International Map of the World sheet Istmo de Tehuantepec (1938)
American Geographical Society
Public Domain: copyright not renewed

World Aeronautical Chart sheet Tehuantepec Isthmus (1946)
US Aeronautical Chart Service
Public Domain: US government


 




FIGURE 2.12
The division of Allied mapping responsibility in 1947: military-topographic maps, aeronautical charts, and storage of reproduction material
Directorate of Military Survey
Copyright 1947


 
FIGURE 2.13
Comparison of sheet grids for the International Map of the World and the World Aeronautical Chart
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 


FIGURE 2.14
World Population Maps of Tuscany (top) and Ventura County, California (bottom)
Geografiska Annaler
Copyright 1963


 
FIGURE 2.15
Comparison of World Land-Use Survey maps from central Italy (top) and western Japan (bottom)
Internationales Jahrbuch für Kartographie
Copyright 1968


 


FIGURE 2.16
Sheet index for the International World Aeronautical Chart: March and October 1962
International Civil Aviation Organization
Public Domain: UN publication


 
FIGURE 2.17
Design alternatives for the World Aeronautical Chart tested for the US Office of Naval Research in 1952
from John E. Murray and Rolland H. Waters, “The Design of Aeronautical Charts II,” Navigation (US) 3 (Dec 1952), 193
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 


FIGURE 2.18
Comparison of the design of American World Aeronautical Charts in 1948 and 1957 (both maps show the same area in northern Italy)
from Richard W. Philbrick, “New Design Features for the World Aeronautical Chart,” Surveying and Mapping (July–Sept 1957), 303, 306
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 2.19
The place of the International World Aeronautical Chart in the official specifications of the International Civil Aviation Organization, 1949−2001
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 3.1
One-kilometer artillery grid on a French trench map, Moreuil, 5 Aug 1918
Service Géographique de l’Armée
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.2
Universal Transverse Mercator grid on a US topographic map, Solomons Island, 1987
US Geological Survey
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 3.3
Detail from the French carte de l’État major, 1885
Dépôt de la Guerre
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.4
The Bonne projection used for the carte de l’État major, extended to show the entire world
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 3.5
Sheet corner from Cassini's Carte de France, Verdun, 1760
César-François Cassini de Thury
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.6
Index sheet from Cassini's Carte de France, 1797
César-François Cassini de Thury
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.7
Grid junctions on a German trench Map, Bourlon, 18 Sep 1918
reproduced in Oskar Albrecht, Das Kriegsvermessungswesen während des Weltkrieges 1914–18 (München: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1969)
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.8
Deployment of the French système Lambert map grid along the western front
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 3.9
The Lambert projection used for the système Lambert, extended to show the entire world
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 3.10
Page from a French trig list, April 1917, giving grid coordinates
Service Géographique de l’Armée; reproduced in Peter Chasseaud, Artillery’s Astrologers: A History of British Survey & Mapping on the Western Front, 1914–1918 (Lewes: Mapbooks, 1999), 514
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.11
British surveyors measuring a captured German trig beacon during World War I
from H. Winterbotham, “Geographical Work with the Army in France,” The Geographical Journal 54 (July 1919), 13
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.12
Textbook demonstration of how to plot a target on a plotting board
from Manual for the Artillery Orientation Officer [translated from French original] (Washington DC: USGPO, 1917), 100
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.13
Zones of the US State Plane Coordinate System, with a separate grid system for each zone
Surveying and Mapping
Copyright 1967


 
FIGURE 3.14
Survey monument in Mt. Vernon, Texas, placed in 1934
QuesterMark
Creative Commons BY-SA


 
FIGURE 3.15
Henri Roussilhe’s scheme for an international grid system, 1922
from H. Roussilhe, “Emploi des coordonnées rectangulaires stéréographiques pour le calcul de la triangulation dans un rayon de 560 kilomètres autour de l’origine,” Travaux de l’Association internationale de géodésie 1 (Paris, 1923 [presented 1922]); shading added
Public Domain: copyright expired


 
FIGURE 3.16
Historical values for the size and shape of the earth

download data in a spreadsheet
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 3.17
The junction of the French and Belgian national triangulations as of 1920
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 3.18
The use of computationally efficient “Bowie Loops” in the western United States
from Oscar Adams, The Bowie Method of Triangulation Adjustment, US Coast and Geodetic Survey special publication 159 (Washington, DC: USGPO, 1930), 10; shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 3.19
Schematic plan for the recalculation of the European triangulation network, 1939
Bulletin géodésique
Copyright 1939


 
FIGURE 3.20
Pierre Tardi's plan for a grid system for Africa, 1936
Bulletin géodésique
Copyright 1938


 
FIGURE 4.1
The Universal Transverse Mercator grid system, shown as if all maps were laid together like an unfolded globe

download grid as a GIS layer
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 4.2
Use of the Universal Transverse Mercator grid (and its Soviet counterpart) by the end of the Cold War
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURES 4.3 AND 4.4
British and American grids during World War II
from US Army Map Service Memorandum No. 425, Grids and Magnetic Declinations, 2nd ed. (Washington DC, 1943); shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 4.5
The first two reference levels of the US Air Defense Grid
from War Department Technical Manual TM 44-225, Orientation for Artillery (Washington DC, 1944); shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 4.6
The most precise references on the US Air Defense Grid
from War Department Technical Manual TM 44-225, Orientation for Artillery (Washington DC, 1944); shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 4.7
The US Joint Army–Navy reference system, applied to individual map sheets
from War Department Technical Manual TM 44-225, Orientation for Artillery (Washington DC, 1944); shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 4.8
Expansion of the US Joint Army–Navy system to adjacent sheets (original map is square M)
from War Department Technical Manual TM 44-225, Orientation for Artillery (Washington DC, 1944); shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 4.9
Top-level “Grid Zone Designations” for the Universal Transverse Mercator grid
from US Army Map Service Technical Manual No. 36, Grids and Grid References (Washington DC, 1950)
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 4.10
Grid Zones subdivided into 100-kilometer squares
from US Army Map Service Technical Manual No. 36, Grids and Grid References (Washington DC, 1950)
Public Domain: US government


 


FIGURE 4.11
Areas of the Universal Transverse Mercator grid with high errors (in dark gray) for Europe and Southeast Asia

download grid as a GIS layer
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 4.12
Ellipsoids used for the Universal Transverse Mercator grid
from US Army Map Service Technical Manual No. 7, Universal Transverse Mercator Grid Tables (Washington DC, 1949?)
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 4.13
The US Army Map Service's scheme for recalculating the European triangulation, 1947
from Floyd Hough, “The Readjustment of European Triangulation,” Transactions, American Geophysical Union 28 (Feb 1947), 63
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 4.14
High-precision survey data used by the US Army Map Service to recalculate the size and shape of the earth in 1956
Bulletin géodésique
Copyright 1959


 
FIGURE 4.15
Mismatches between North-American and European values for the size and shape of the earth
William Rankin, after Irene Fischer
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.1
Mockup of a Gee receiver in an Avro Lancaster bomber
photo by Peter Zijlstra
used with permission


 
FIGURE 5.2
Gee lattice chart showing northern England, Wales, and eastern Ireland (postwar reprint of 1944 edition)
British War Office
Public Domain: expired Crown Copyright


 
FIGURE 5.3
A call for public investment in aviation: Buffalo, NY, 1927
Buffalo Journal of Commerce
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 5.4
The directional Morse-code broadcasts of the US Radio Range create four narrow beams
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.5
The network of Radio-Range airways in the United States in the late 1930s
from Ronald Keen, Wireless Direction Finding, 3rd ed. (London: Iliffe & Sons, 1938), 484, and Civil Aeronautics Authority, First Annual Report of the Civil Aeronautics Authority (Washington: USGPO, 1940), appendix B
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 5.6
Radio Direction Finding (D/F) stations in Europe as of 1931
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.7
German beams aimed at the UK during the Battle of Britain, summer 1941
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.8
The British Oboe system, as configured for a bombing raid on Essen in 1942
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.9
European coverage of the British Gee system at the end of World War II
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.10
Coverage of the German Sonne system at the end of World War II
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.11
Coverage of the American Loran system at the end of World War II

download transmitter locations and chain connections as GIS layers
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.12
Hyperbolic navigation: position is determined by measuring the time difference between signals sent from two synchronized transmitters
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.13
The hyperbolic grid of Loran off the east coast of the United States and Canada
from J. A. Pierce, “An Introduction to Loran,” Proceedings of the IRE 34 (May 1946), 219; shading added
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 5.14
Detail of Loran Chart, Atlantic Coast: Cape Sable to Cape Hatteras, chart 1000-L (1948)
US Coast and Geodetic Survey
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 5.15
Plan for advancing Gee coverage in France and Germany after D-Day
British War Office
Copyright 1944


 
FIGURE 5.16
Trilateration surveying with Shoran after World War II
from Carl Aslakson, “The Influence of Electronics on Surveying and Mapping,” Surveying and Mapping (July–Sept 1950), 167
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 5.17
Trilateration performed during the 1950s and 1960s (shaded in gray)
from Defense Mapping Agency, Geodesy for the Layman, 5th ed. (Washington: DMA, 1983; map dated 1971), 18; shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 5.18
Advertisement for offshore radio surveying, 1959
from Surveying and Mapping (Mar 1959), 141
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 5.19
Advertisement for offshore radio surveying, 1971
Surveying and Mapping
Copyright 1971


 
FIGURE 5.20
The Floor of the World Ocean, by Richard Edes Harrison (1961 version of 1959 original)
from Annals of the Association of American Geographers 51 (Sept 1961)
Public Domain: copyright not renewed


 
FIGURE 5.21
British proposal for worldwide Consol and Decca coverage, 1947
from International Meeting on Marine Radio Aids to Navigation: Proceedings and Related Documents, April 28 – May 9, 1947 (Washington: State Department, 1948), facing 438; shading added
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 5.22
1959 US plan for the VOR/DME airway network through 1965
from US Air Coordinating Committee Technical Division, “Short Distance Radionavigation: Background Information and Views Presented by the United States of America,” 1958 (ICAO, box “SP/COM/OPS/RAC 1958”), chart 9
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 5.23
Expansion of Decca coverage, 1946–1985

download transmitter locations and chain connections as GIS layers
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.24
Expansion of Loran-A coverage, 1946–1975

download transmitter locations and chain connections as GIS layers
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.25
Expansion (and contraction) of Loran-C coverage, 1957–1996

download transmitter locations and chain connections as GIS layers
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 5.26
Integrated map display with a fixed map and a movable "bug" showing the pilot's real-time location (1965)
Navigation (US)
Copyright 1965


 
FIGURE 5.27
A palm-sized "roller map" display that would automatically advance as the plane followed its course (1960)
Journal of the Institute of Navigation (UK)
Copyright 1960


 
FIGURE 6.1
GPS satellite constellation design, mid-1980s
from R. L. Beard, J. Murray, and J. D. White, “GPS Clock Technology and the Navy PTTI Programs at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory,” in Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Precise Time and Time Interval (PTTI) Applications and Planning Meeting (1986), 50
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 6.2
A GPS collar on “Floggy,” a brown hyena, in Namibia in 2006
photo by Ingrid Wiesel, from “Predicting the influence of land development on brown hyena (Parahyaena brunnea) movement and activity”
used with permission


 
FIGURE 6.3
The "birdcage" of the US Navy's Transit satellites
Navigation (US)
Copyright 1978


 
FIGURE 6.4
Coverage of Omega lattice charts in the early 1970s: maps were not available gray areas
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 6.5
The US Navy's AN/UYK-1 computer for Transit satellite navigation, circa 1961
from Ramo-Woolridge (a division of TRW), AN/UYK-1: A Multiple Purpose Digital Computer, 21 Apr 1961
Public Domain: no copyright notice


 


FIGURE 6.6
Shrinking Transit equipment from Magnavox, 1968 to 1976
Navigation (US)
Copyright 1971, 1978


 
FIGURE 6.7
Omega transmitter locations, 1951–1997

download locations as a GIS layer
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 6.8
Proposed network of Omega monitoring stations as of 1978
Navigation (US)
Copyright 1978


 
FIGURE 6.9
A 1975 proposal for “differential” Omega stations in the contiguous United States
Navigation (US)
Copyright 1975


 
FIGURE 6.10
Ground installations for the Transit satellite system
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 6.11
A civilian satellite-navigation system designed for NASA, circa 1970
from Leo M. Keane et al., “Global Navigation and Traffic Control Using Satellites,” NASA Technical Report R-342, July 1970,12
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 6.12
A plan for megaregional coverage for a civilian satellite navigation system in a geostationary orbit, mid-1960s
Navigation (US)
Copyright 1966


 
FIGURE 6.13
A plan for near-global civilian coverage from six geostationary satellites, mid-1960s
Navigation (US)
Copyright 1967


 
FIGURE 6.14
Launch and operational status of GPS satellites, 1978–2010

download data in a spreadsheet
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 


FIGURE 6.15
The shrinking size of GPS equipment: the "Manpack" of 1978 compared with the DAGR of 2004
from Steven Lazar, “Modernization and the Move to GPS III,” Crosslink 3 (Summer 2002), 45, and Rockwell Collins, Inc.
Copyright 1978?, 2008?


 


FIGURE 6.16
OpenStreetMap data, before and after the 2010 Haiti earthquake
adapted from Mikel Maron's screencaptures
Creative Commons BY-SA


 
FIGURE 6.17
Shindand airfield, Afghanistan, after an American GPS-guided bomb strike, October 2001
US Department of Defense
Public Domain: US government


 
FIGURE 6.18
GPS augmentation systems as of 2015: Differential GPS (DGPS) and Satellite-Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS)

download DGPS as GIS layers
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA


 
FIGURE 6.19
GPS ground installations: original US-controlled sites, with more recent stations in other countries
William Rankin
Creative Commons BY-NC-SA